Decryption of .png and .jpg files - encryption

I'm trying to modify graphic assets of the software I'm using (for aesthetic puroposess, I guess it's hard to do something harmful with graphic assets) but developer encrypted them. I'm not sure why he decided to do that since I used and modified a bunch of similar softwares and developers of those didn't bother (as I can see no reason why encrypting those assets would be necessary).
So anyway here are examples of those encrypted graphic assets:
http://www.mediafire.com/view/sx2yc0w5wkr9m2h/avatars_50-alpha.jpg
http://www.mediafire.com/download/i4fc52438hkp55l/avatars_80.png
Is there a way of decrypting those? If so how should I go about this?

The header "CF10" seems to be a privately added signature to signify the rest of the file is "encoded". This is a very simple XOR encoding: xor 8Dh was the first value I tried, and I got it right first time too. The reasoning behind trying that as the first value is that the value 8D occurs very frequently in the first 100 bytes-or-so, where they typically could be lots of zeroes.
"Decrypting" is thus very straightforward: if a file starts with the four bytes CF10, remove them and apply xor 8Dh on the rest of the file. Decoding the files show the first "JPG" is in fact a tiny PNG image (and not a very interesting one to boot), the second is indeed a PNG file:
The file extension may or may not be the original file extension; the one sample called ".jpg" is in fact also a PNG file, as can be seen by its header signature.
The following quick-and-dirty C source will decode the images. The same program can be adjusted to encode them as well, because the xor operation is exactly the same. The only thing needed is add a bit of logic flow:
read the first 4 bytes (maximum) of the input file and test if this forms the string CF10
if not, the file is not encoded:
a. write CF10 to the output file
b. encode the image by applying xor 8Dh on each byte
if so,
b. decode the image by applying xor 8Dh on each byte.
As you can see, there is no "3a" and both "b" steps are the same.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#ifndef MAX_PATH
#define MAX_PATH 256
#endif
#define INPUTPATH "c:\\documents"
#define OUTPUTPATH ""
int main (int argc, char **argv)
{
FILE *inp, *outp;
int i, encode_flag = 0;
char filename_buffer[MAX_PATH];
char sig[] = "CF10", *ptr;
if (argc != 3)
{
printf ("usage: decode [input] [output]\n");
return -1;
}
filename_buffer[0] = 0;
if (!strchr(argv[1], '/') && !strchr(argv[1], 92) && !strchr(argv[1], ':'))
strcpy (filename_buffer, INPUTPATH);
strcat (filename_buffer, argv[1]);
inp = fopen (filename_buffer, "rb");
if (inp == NULL)
{
printf ("bad input file '%s'\n", filename_buffer);
return -2;
}
ptr = sig;
while (*ptr)
{
i = fgetc (inp);
if (*ptr != i)
{
encode_flag = 1;
break;
}
ptr++;
}
if (encode_flag)
{
/* rewind file because we already read some bytes */
fseek (inp, 0, SEEK_SET);
printf ("encoding input file: '%s'\n", filename_buffer);
} else
printf ("decoding input file: '%s'\n", filename_buffer);
filename_buffer[0] = 0;
if (!strchr(argv[2], '/') && !strchr(argv[2], 92) && !strchr(argv[2], ':'))
strcpy (filename_buffer, OUTPUTPATH);
strcat (filename_buffer, argv[2]);
outp = fopen (filename_buffer, "wb");
if (outp == NULL)
{
printf ("bad output file '%s'\n", filename_buffer);
return -2;
}
printf ("output file: '%s'\n", filename_buffer);
if (encode_flag)
fwrite (sig, 1, 4, outp);
do
{
i = fgetc(inp);
if (i != EOF)
fputc (i ^ 0x8d, outp);
} while (i != EOF);
fclose (inp);
fclose (outp);
printf ("all done. bye bye\n");
return 0;
}

Ok so when it comes to practical usage of the code provided by #Jongware that was unclear to me - I figured it out with some help:)
I compiled the code using Visual Studio (you can find guides on how to do that, basically create new Visual C++ project and in Project -> Project Propeties choose C/C++ -> All options and Compile as C Code (/TC)).
Then I opened program in command prompt using parameter "program encrypted_file decrypted_file".
Thanks a lot for help Jongware!

Related

arduino, setup ethernet & network using data from SD config file

Im try to add to my sketch a dynamic way to setup the ethernet info (mac, ip, gateway, subnet) from a configuration file (config.txt). So running a webserver and serving htm files from sd card, user can go to setting page, fill a form with these info and when posted , the webserver parse the http form and save (update) the config.txt file. After that system do a restart, in order to start with the new settings (by read the config.txt file)
I have create succesfully all the parts (sd, ethernet, webserver, webclient, create the config file from posted form data) except the get params by reading the config.txt file.
I can read line by line the config, I can split the line to param & value, and now I need to fill some byte variables with the readed data. I can (after a month of google searching) to read IPs (decimal values) to byte array. Im stack to read the MAC ADDRESS hex into byte array. The config file contains the:
mac=8f:2c:2b:19:e0:b7;
ip=192.168.1.200;
netmask=255.255.255.0;
gateway=192.168.1.254;
dns=8.8.8.8;
posturl=192.168.1.157;
postport=8080;
postscript=/itherm/update.php;
interval=60000;
and the code that I use to read is:
byte myMAC[6];
byte myIP[4];
File fset;
fset = SD.open("config.txt");
if (fset){
char ff[40];
while (fset.available()>1){
bool eol=false;
for (int i=0; !eol;i++){
ff[i]=fset.read();
if (ff[i]=='\n'){
eol=true;
}
}
String par="";
bool DONE=false;
for (int i=0; !DONE;i++){
par+=ff[i];
if (ff[i]== '='){DONE=true;}
}
String pval="";
DONE=false;
//------------------------
if (par=="ip=" ){
int x=0;
while(!DONE){
for(int i=3;i<=i+21;i++){
if(ff[i]=='.'){
myIP[x]=pval.toInt();
x++;
i++;
pval="";
}
else if(ff[i]==';' || i>20){
myIP[x]=pval.toInt();
DONE=true;
break;
}
pval+=ff[i];
}
}
}
} //while (fset.available()>1)
} //if (fset)
I will appreciate any help. Please no answers with simple use of Serial.print(). I have found hundreds of suggestions but none, that work properly to read all the parameters (dec, hex, strings). After a month of effort & searching, I wonder why something so necessary and useful does not exist as an example in the community, completely functional !!
Best regards
Okay so here is a complete set of routines to do what you want -I think you misunderstood the concept of char arrays vs a single char[0] The routines are documented and self explanatory. I recomend not to finish lines with ; but with '\n' which in your example is there anyway (also you can not see the new line terminator) To get the mac address I need three lines:
if (strncmp(cfgLine, "mac=", 4) == 0) {
strcpy (macAddr, cfgLine + 4);
}
line one compares the first 4 characters and if it is 0 (meaning its a fit)
line two copies the chars from the fifth to the last char from the lineBuffer to the target array, which can actually be used as param for functions.
The file structure should be with no ; as you would have to parse ; and \n
mac=8f:2c:2b:19:e0:b7
ip=192.168.1.200
....
postport=8080
To convert a char array to eg int we use atoi(), to convert a single char[0] to a single number we use int singleDigit = char[0]-48;
const char configurationFilePath [] = "/someconfig.txt";
char cfgLine[128] = {'\0'}; // this is a global temp char array to hold the read lines (lenght= chars longest line +1)
char numBuffer[16] = {'\0'}; // this is a global temo char array to help to convert char to number
char macAddr [18] = {'\0'}; // this is a global char array to hold the mac address
char ipAddr [16] = {'\0'}; // this is a global char array to hold the IP address - max xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx
int postport=0;
// .... you can easyly implement for all other data you want to store/retrieve
// Counts the lines of a file
uint16_t countLines() {
uint16_t currentLineCount = 0;
File cfgFile = SD.open(configurationFilePath, "r");
if (!cfgFile) {
Serial.println(F("Config file open failed on read"));
} else {
while (cfgFile.available()) {
/** Lets read line by line from the file */
if (cfgFile.read() == '\n') currentLineCount ++; // Lines are delimited by '\n'
}
cfgFile.close();
}
return currentLineCount;
}
//Load the config file from SD/SPIFFS/LittleFS
bool loadConfigFile() {
uint16_t lineCounter = countLines();
if (lineCounter <= 0) {
Serial.print(F("No config data stored in file ")); Serial.println(configurationFilePath);
return false;
}
else {
File cfgFile = SD.open(configurationFilePath, "r");
while (cfgFile.available()) {
strcpy (cfgLine, (cfgFile.readStringUntil('\n').c_str())); // normaly you use new line, we copy one line at a time
// Serial.println(cfgLine); /** Printing for debuging purpose */
while (cfgLine[0] != '\0') { /* Block refilling of cfgLine till processed */
loadSingleCfgLine();
}
}
cfgFile.close();
Serial.println(F("[Success] Loaded config !"));
return true;
}
}
//Load the data of a single line into a char array
void loadSingleCfgLine() {
if (strncmp(cfgLine, "mac=", 4) == 0) {
strcpy (macAddr, cfgLine + 4);
}
if (strncmp(cfgLine, "ip=", 3) == 0) {
strcpy (ipAddr, cfgLine + 3);
}
if (strncmp(cfgLine, "postport=", 9) == 0) {
strcpy (numBuffer, cfgLine + 9);
postport = atoi(numBuffer); // One extra step to convert to int
}
// ... easy to implement for all other data
}
I divided the routines into small independend functions, so its easy adaptable for different uses. I'm sorry for not digging into your code as it is hard to follow and unclear what you want todo.As an added bonus we do not use the String class. These Strings tend to fragment heap - causing resets/crashes while the global char arrays are compiled to flash and don't show this behavior.

How to open a file in Qt-method but read it use C-language function?

I know Qt has a lot of good methods for reading file.But in my work , I have to open a file by using Qt and get a pointer pointing to the start address of the file.So how to do that?
Here is my codes:
char *buffer;
if(file.open(QIODevice::ReadOnly))
{
QByteArray dataArray=file.readAll();
buffer=dataArray.data();
}
char test[1024];
for(int i=0;i<1024;i++)
{
test[i]=*buffer;
buffer++;
}
I use QByteArray QIODevice::​readAll()to read all available data from the device, and returns it as a byte array.
Then I use char * QByteArray::​data() to set my pointer buffer.
But when I try to read the data by a for loop,my Qt debugger throw me an error:read access violation,so how would this happen?
BTW , the file to be read is very big so I can't use a buffer to read them all once. Instead , I have to do as what I did here. When I read a 7kb-sizes-file ,my codes runs well. When I read a 700kb-sizes-file , here comes the problem.
The reason you are getting access violation is that dataArray is declared inside if code block and goes out of scope. You want to declare the dataArray outside of that block, eg:
QByteArray dataArray;
if(file.open(QIODevice::ReadOnly))
{
dataArray = file.readAll();
}
else
{
// give error
}
char *buffer = dataArray.data();
char test[1024];
for(int i = 0; i < 1024; i++)
{
test[i] = *buffer;
buffer++;
}
There are other potential problems in your code though:
First, what if the size of data read from the file is less than 1024? Then you will be reading past the end of the buffer (more access violations).
Second, what if the file is really big? Reading all that data at once may cause swapping/paging.

Finding a specific character in a file in Qt

How can i find a specific character in a QFile which has a text in it?
for example i have ' $5000 ' written somewhere in my file. in want to find the "$" sign so i will realize that I've reached the number.
I tried using QString QTextStream::read(qint64 maxlen) by putting 1 as the maxlen :
QFile myfile("myfile.txt");
myfile.open(QIODevice::ReadWrite | QIODevice::Text);
QTextStream myfile_stream(&myfile);
while(! myfile_stream.atEnd())
{
if( myfile_stream.read(1) == '$')
{
qDebug()<<"found";
break;
}
}
and i get "error: invalid conversion from 'char' to 'const char* "
i also tried using the operator[] but apparently it can't be used for files.
Read in a line at a time and search the text that you've read in
QTextStream stream(&myFile);
QString line;
do
{
line = stream.readLine();
if(line.contains("$"))
{
qDebug()<<"found";
break;
}
} while (!line.isNull());
The error message you've posted doesn't match the issue in your code. Possibly the error was caused by something else.
QTextStream::read returns QString. You can't compare QString and const char* directly, but operator[] can help:
QString s = stream.read(1);
if (s.count() == 1) {
if (s[0] == '$') {
//...
}
}
However reading a file by too small pieces will be very slow. If your file is small enough, you can read it all at once:
QString s = stream.readAll();
int index = s.indexOf('$');
If your file is large, it's better to read file by small chunks (1024 bytes for example) and calculate the index of found character using indexOf result and count of already read chunks.
a single char could be read with
QTextStream myfile_stream(&myfile);
QChar c;
while (!myfile_stream.atEnd())
myfile_stream >> c;
if (c == '$') {
...
}
myfile_stream.read(1) - this is not good practice, you should not read from file one byte at a time. Either read the entire file, or buffered/line by line if there is a risk for the file to be too big to fit in memory.
The error you get is because you compare a QString for equality with a character literal - needless to say that is not going to work as expected. A string is a string even if there is only one character in it. As advised - use either the [] operator or better off for reading - QString::at() const which is guaranteed to create no extra copy. You don't use it on the QFile, nor on the QTextStream, but on the QString that is returned from the read() method of the text stream targeted at the file.
Once you have the text in memory, you can either use the regular QString methods like indexOf() to search for the index of a contained character.
in want to find the "$" sign so i will realize that I've reached the
number.
It sounds to me that you're searching for the '$' symbol because you're more interested in the dollar value that follows it. In this case, I suggest reading the files line by line and running them through a QRegExp to extract any values you're looking for.
QRegExp dollarFind("\\$(\\d+)");
while(!myfile_stream.atEnd()){
QString line = myfile_stream.readLine();
if (dollarFind.exactMatch(line)){
QStringList dollars = dollarFind.capturedTexts();
qDebug() << "Dollar values found: " << dollars.join(", ");
}
}

How to remove EXIF data without recompressing the JPEG?

I want to remove the EXIF information (including thumbnail, metadata, camera info... everything!) from JPEG files, but I don't want to recompress it, as recompressing the JPEG will degrade the quality, as well as usually increasing the file size.
I'm looking for a Unix/Linux solution, even better if using the command-line. If possible, using ImageMagick (convert tool). If that's not possible, a small Python, Perl, PHP (or other common language on Linux) script would be ok.
There is a similar question, but related to .NET.
exiftool does the job for me, it's written in perl so should work for you on any o/s
https://exiftool.org/
usage :
exiftool -all= image.jpg
UPDATED - as PeterCo explains below this will remove ALL of the tags. if you just want to remove the EXIF tags then you should use
exiftool -EXIF= image.jpg
With imagemagick:
convert <input file> -strip <output file>
ImageMagick has the -strip parameter, but it recompresses the image before saving. Thus, this parameter is useless for my need.
This topic from ImageMagick forum explains that there is no support for JPEG lossless operations in ImageMagick (whenever this changes, please post a comment with a link!), and suggests using jpegtran (from libjpeg):
jpegtran -copy none -progressive image.jpg > newimage.jpg
jpegtran -copy none -progressive -outfile newimage.jpg image.jpg
(If you are unsure about me answering my own question, read this and this and this)
You might also want to look into Exiv2 -- it's really fast (C++ and no recompression), it's command line, and it also provides a library for EXIF manipulation you can link against. I don't know how many Linux distros make it available, but in CentOS it's currently available in the base repo.
Usage:
exiv2 rm image.jpg
I'd propose jhead:
man jhead
jhead -purejpg image.jpg
Only 123Kb on debian/ubuntu, it's fast, and it only touches EXIF keeping the image itself intact. Note that you need to create a copy if you want to preserve the original file with EXIF in it.
I recently undertook this project in C. The code below does the following:
1) Gets the current orientation of the image.
2) Removes all data contained in APP1 (Exif data) and APP2 (Flashpix data) by blanking.
3) Recreates the APP1 orientation marker and sets it to the original value.
4) Finds the first EOI marker (End of Image) and truncates the file if nessasary.
Some things to note first are:
1) This program is used for my Nikon camera. Nikon's JPEG format adds somthing to the very end of each file it creates. They encode this data on to the end of the image file by creating a second EOI marker. Normally image programs read up to the first EOI marker found. Nikon has information after this which my program truncates.
2) Because this is for Nikon format, it assumes big endian byte order. If your image file uses little endian, some adjustments need to be made.
3) When trying to use ImageMagick to strip exif data, I noticed that I ended up with a larger file than what I started with. This leads me to believe that Imagemagick is encoding the data you want stripped away, and is storing it somewhere else in the file. Call me old fashioned, but when I remove something from a file, I want a file size the be smaller if not the same size. Any other results suggest data mining.
And here is the code:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <libgen.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <errno.h>
// Declare constants.
#define COMMAND_SIZE 500
#define RETURN_SUCCESS 1
#define RETURN_FAILURE 0
#define WORD_SIZE 15
int check_file_jpg (void);
int check_file_path (char *file);
int get_marker (void);
char * ltoa (long num);
void process_image (char *file);
// Declare global variables.
FILE *fp;
int orientation;
char *program_name;
int main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
// Set program name for error reporting.
program_name = basename(argv[0]);
// Check for at least one argument.
if(argc < 2)
{
fprintf(stderr, "usage: %s IMAGE_FILE...\n", program_name);
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
}
// Process all arguments.
for(int x = 1; x < argc; x++)
process_image(argv[x]);
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}
void process_image (char *file)
{
char command[COMMAND_SIZE + 1];
// Check that file exists.
if(check_file_path(file) == RETURN_FAILURE)
return;
// Check that file is an actual JPEG file.
if(check_file_jpg() == RETURN_FAILURE)
{
fclose(fp);
return;
}
// Jump to orientation marker and store value.
fseek(fp, 55, SEEK_SET);
orientation = fgetc(fp);
// Recreate the APP1 marker with just the orientation tag listed.
fseek(fp, 21, SEEK_SET);
fputc(1, fp);
fputc(1, fp);
fputc(18, fp);
fputc(0, fp);
fputc(3, fp);
fputc(0, fp);
fputc(0, fp);
fputc(0, fp);
fputc(1, fp);
fputc(0, fp);
fputc(orientation, fp);
// Blank the rest of the APP1 marker with '\0'.
for(int x = 0; x < 65506; x++)
fputc(0, fp);
// Blank the second APP1 marker with '\0'.
fseek(fp, 4, SEEK_CUR);
for(int x = 0; x < 2044; x++)
fputc(0, fp);
// Blank the APP2 marker with '\0'.
fseek(fp, 4, SEEK_CUR);
for(int x = 0; x < 4092; x++)
fputc(0, fp);
// Jump the the SOS marker.
fseek(fp, 72255, SEEK_SET);
while(1)
{
// Truncate the file once the first EOI marker is found.
if(fgetc(fp) == 255 && fgetc(fp) == 217)
{
strcpy(command, "truncate -s ");
strcat(command, ltoa(ftell(fp)));
strcat(command, " ");
strcat(command, file);
fclose(fp);
system(command);
break;
}
}
}
int get_marker (void)
{
int c;
// Check to make sure marker starts with 0xFF.
if((c = fgetc(fp)) != 0xFF)
{
fprintf(stderr, "%s: get_marker: invalid marker start (should be FF, is %2X)\n", program_name, c);
return(RETURN_FAILURE);
}
// Return the next character.
return(fgetc(fp));
}
int check_file_jpg (void)
{
// Check if marker is 0xD8.
if(get_marker() != 0xD8)
{
fprintf(stderr, "%s: check_file_jpg: not a valid jpeg image\n", program_name);
return(RETURN_FAILURE);
}
return(RETURN_SUCCESS);
}
int check_file_path (char *file)
{
// Open file.
if((fp = fopen(file, "rb+")) == NULL)
{
fprintf(stderr, "%s: check_file_path: fopen failed (%s) (%s)\n", program_name, strerror(errno), file);
return(RETURN_FAILURE);
}
return(RETURN_SUCCESS);
}
char * ltoa (long num)
{
// Declare variables.
int ret;
int x = 1;
int y = 0;
static char temp[WORD_SIZE + 1];
static char word[WORD_SIZE + 1];
// Stop buffer overflow.
temp[0] = '\0';
// Keep processing until value is zero.
while(num > 0)
{
ret = num % 10;
temp[x++] = 48 + ret;
num /= 10;
}
// Reverse the word.
while(y < x)
{
word[y] = temp[x - y - 1];
y++;
}
return word;
}
Hope this helps someone!
We used this to remove latitude data from TIFF file:
exiv2 mo -M"del Exif.GPSInfo.GPSLatitude" IMG.TIF
where you can use exiv2 -pa IMG.TIF to list all metadata.
Hint for convenience: If you are on Windows, you can apply a REG file to the registry, to install an entry in the context menu, so you can easily remove metadata by right-clicking the file and selecting the command.
For example (remember to edit the paths to point to where the executables are installed on your computer):
For JPEG,JPG,JPE,JFIF files: command "Remove metadata"
(using ExifTool, preserves original file as backup)
exiftool -all= image.jpg
JPG-RemoveExif.reg
Windows Registry Editor Version 5.00
[HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Classes\jpegfile\shell\RemoveMetadata]
#="Remove metadata"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Classes\jpegfile\shell\RemoveMetadata\command]
#="\"C:\\Path to\\exiftool.exe\" -all= \"%1\""
[HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Classes\jpegfile\shell\RemoveMetadata]
"Icon"="C:\\Path to\\exiftool.exe,0"
For PNG files: command "Convert to minified PNG"
(using ImageMagick, changes data overwriting original file)
convert -background none -strip -set filename:n "%t" image.png "%[filename:n].png"
PNG-Minify.reg
Windows Registry Editor Version 5.00
[HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Classes\pngfile\shell\ConvertToMinifiedPNG]
#="Convert to minified PNG"
[HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Classes\pngfile\shell\ConvertToMinifiedPNG\command]
#="\"C:\\Path to\\convert.exe\" -background none -strip -set filename:n \"%%t\" \"%1\" \"%%[filename:n].png\""
[HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Classes\pngfile\shell\ConvertToMinifiedPNG]
"Icon"="C:\\Path to\\convert.exe,0"
Related: convert PNGs to ICO in context menu.
For lossless EXIF strip you can use libexif, which is available with cygwin. Remove both EXIF and thumbnail to anonymize an image:
$ exif --remove --tag=0 --remove-thumbnail exif.jpg -o anonymized.jpg
Drag-n-drop .bat file for use with cygwin:
#ECHO OFF
exif --remove --tag=0 --remove-thumbnail %~1
If you already use jpegoptim you can use it to remove the exif, too.
jpegoptim -s *

How to get magic number of a binary file

There is a magic number associated with each binary file , does anyone know how to retrieve this information from the file?
file <file_name>
magic numbers are usually stored in (linux):
/usr/share/file/magic
also check this link, someone was trying to use libmagic to get the information in C program, might be useful if you're writing something yourself.
Use libmagic from the file package to try and sniff out the type of file if that's your goal.
There are no general "magic" numbers in binary files on unix, though different formats might define their own. The above library knows about many of those and also use various other heuristics to try and figure out the format/type of file.
The unix file command uses magic number. see the file man page for more.(and where to find the magic file )
Read this: http://linux.die.net/man/5/magic
It's complex, and depends on the specific file type you're looking for.
There is a file command which in turn uses a magic library, the magic library reads from a file found in /etc called magic (this is installation dependant and may vary), which details what are the first few bytes of the file and tells the file what kind of a file it is, be it, jpg, binary, text, shell script. There is an old version of libmagic found on sourceforge. Incidentally, there is a related answer to this here.
Hope this helps,
Best regards,
Tom.
Expounding on #nos's answer:
Example below uses the default magic database to query the file passed on the command line. (Essentially an implementation of the file command. See man libmagic for more details/functions.
#include <iostream>
#include <magic.h>
#include <cassert>
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
if (argc == 1) {
std::cerr << "Usage " << argv[0] << " [filename]" << std::endl;
return -1;
}
const char * fname = argv[1];
magic_t cookie = magic_open(0);
assert (cookie !=nullptr);
int rc = magic_load(cookie, nullptr);
assert(rc == 0);
auto f= magic_file(cookie, fname);
if (f ==nullptr) {
std::cerr << magic_error(cookie) << std::endl;
} else {
std::cout << fname << ' ' << f << std::endl;
}
}

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